Internal and external self-affirmation resources: validation and assessment of psychometric properties of the spontaneous self-affirmation measure using structural equation modeling.

Introduction: People use coping strategies such as self-affirmation to manage threats to their self-esteem. In empirical research, self-affirmation often involves recalling personal values, strengths, or relationships to restore moral integrity. Research shows it improves attitude adjustment, resolves cognitive dissonance, and enhances well-being. Some studies stress the importance of distinguishing between different aspects of self-affirmation, like strengths or social relations. These aspects align with concepts in psychotherapy that differentiate between internal and external resource activation, benefiting health, self-esteem, and resilience. The aim of the current study was twofold: first, to independently test the three-factor structure of the Spontaneous Self-affirmation Measure (SSAM), and second, to integrate self-affirmation strategies into a broader resource activation framework as resilience factors. It also examined associations with self-esteem and effects of age, gender, and education on spontaneous self-affirmation. Methods: 1,100 participants (72% female, age 18-65) were recruited online. The original three-factor structure of the SSAM (with the factors Strengths, Values and Social relations) was examined using structural equation modeling. Further, a theory driven two-factor structure applying an internal and external resources framework was examined, integrating the factors of the SSAM into the taxonomy of resource activation (Internal resources: Strengths and Values; External resources: Social relations). Results: The results of confirmatory factor analyses showed that both the original three-factor structure and the complementary two-factor structure with an Internal resources and External resources factor fit the data appropriately. All three factors of the original factor model showed a high reliability (Strengths: ωt = 0.91, Values: ωt = 0.91, Social relations: ωt = 0.92). We also found measurement invariance across age, gender, and education. Furthermore, group differences regarding gender, education and ethnicity in the utilization of spontaneous self-affirmation strategies were apparent. Finally, it was demonstrated that the Internal resources factor of the complementary two-factor model is significantly more strongly correlated with self-esteem than the External Resources factor [z = 12.80, p < 0.001, 95%CIdiff (0.24, 0.33)]. Discussion: The study confirms the validity of both the three-factor and two-factor structures of the SSAM. Integrating self-affirmation into the resource activation framework may facilitate applying findings from self-affirmation studies to clinical contexts.

Validation of the factor structure of the Experiences Questionnaire using Exploratory Graph Analysis.

Introduction: Decentering describes the ability to shift the focus away from one's subjective experience onto the experience itself. The Experiences Questionnaire (EQ) is a self-report measure that was developed to systematically assess changes in Decentering ability. Although several studies show the validity of the questionnaire, there are discrepancies between the factorial structure of the Decentering scale of the EQ (EQ-D) found in the initial study (one factor) and other studies (two factors). Therefore, the current study aimed to assess the dimensionality of the EQ-D using Exploratory Graph Analysis (EGA). Methods: In total, 1,100 participants were recruited online (790 female, 307 male, 3 non-binary; age 18 to 65 years). Participants completed the EQ and the Rosenberg Self-esteem scale (RSES). Results: The bootstrapped EGA results revealed a two-dimensional structure of the EQ-D (Factor 1: Distanced Perspective, DP; Factor 2: Accepting Self-perception, AS) with high structural and item stability (all items > 0.70). The two dimensions of the EQ-D showed a high internal consistency (DP: ω = 0.74; AS: ω = 0.86) and discriminant validity with the rumination items of the EQ. Furthermore, a high convergent validity of the EQ was established, as the AS factor exhibited a significantly stronger correlation with self-esteem than the DP factor (z = 7.98, p < 0.001), which aligns with theoretical considerations suggesting that the AS factor encompasses aspects of self-compassion alongside decentering. We also found measurement invariance of the DP and AS factor across age, gender and country but not for education. Discussion: These results support the EQ's validity, demonstrated in a larger sample with a new methodology, aligning with existing two-factor decentering models literature.

Self-Referential Processing and Resting-State Functional MRI Connectivity of Cortical Midline Structures in Glioma Patients.

Metacognition has only scarcely been investigated in brain tumor patients. It is unclear if and how the tumor-lesioned brain might be able to maintain an adequate sense-of-self. As cortical midline structures (CMS) are regarded as essential for self-referential mental activity, we investigated resting-state fMRI connectivity (FC) of CMS to the default-mode network (DMN) and to the whole brain, comparing glioma patients and matched controls. Subjects furthermore performed a trait judgement (TJ), a trait recall task (TR), and neuropsychological testing. In the TJ, adjectives had to be ascribed as self- or non-self-describing, assessing the self-serving effect (SSE), a normally observed bias for positive traits. In the TR, the mnemic neglect effect (MNE), a memory advantage for positive traits, was tested. The groups were compared and partial correlations between FC and test metrics were analyzed. Although patients were significantly impaired in terms of verbal memory, groups did not differ in the SSE or the MNE results, showing preserved metacognitive abilities in patients. FC of CMS to the DMN was maintained, but was significantly decreased to whole brain in the patients. FC of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC) to whole brain was correlated with the MNE in patients. Preserving the DMPFC in therapeutic interventions might be relevant for maintaining self-related verbal information processing in the memory domain in glioma patients.

Self-referential processing and perspective taking in patients with a borderline personality disorder.

Divergent self- and other-referential processes play a particular role in the development and maintenance of borderline personality disorder (BPD). This study investigated self-referential processes in patients with BPD and age-matched controls. Participants performed a trait-judgment task, taking their own and the perspective of a close other person. Memory was assessed during recall of the previous choices. Results revealed over all more negative self-appraisals in patients than controls, which seemed due to making less positive self-referential choices rather than an increased choice of negative traits. Interestingly, taking another perspective, patients had a healthier, predominantly positive self-assessment, albeit still attenuated compared to controls. The characteristics of the appraisals were mirrored in memory performances. Moreover, self-esteem seems to be a potential protective factor, as self-appraisals were more positive with higher self-esteem. Altogether, this study shows significantly deviant self-referential processes in patients with BPD, suggesting that patients do not integrate what they believe others think about them into their self-concept.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation of the Medial Prefrontal Cortex Has No Specific Effect on Self-referential Processes.

The processing of self-referential information can be influenced by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). The present randomized controlled study investigated whether similar effects can be elicited through the application of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) regarding the "self-serving bias" (SSB) and the "mnemic neglect effect" (MNE). Seventy-five healthy males (M age = 25; SD = 4.3) were investigated in a between-groups design with random assignment by applying anodal, cathodal, or sham tDCS to the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). After stimulation, the participants judged if 80 personality traits (40 positive, 40 negative) were self-descriptive or not. Finally, the participants had to recall the previously presented adjectives. All three stimulation groups showed the expected SSB and MNE. Still, and contrary to our hypotheses, tDCS revealed neither a significant interaction effect between groups and valence concerning the number of chosen self-referential traits (F (2,72) = 1.36, p = 0.26, η G 2 = 0.02) nor an interaction effect between groups, valence, and self-reference concerning the percentage of recalled words (F (2,71) = 0.69, p = 0.50, η G 2 = 0.01). However, a post hoc inspection of effect sizes revealed that less negative traits were indicated as self-referential in the anodal compared to the cathodal group (ES: -0.59; CI: -1.16 to -0.03). Moreover, the participants showed-regardless of self-reference and type of stimulation-a better recall with tDCS in comparison to sham stimulation. Our results indicate that tDCS of the mPFC in healthy young men has no influence on the SSB and the MNE. However, tDCS seems to improve memory performance.

How females think about themselves and how they assume that significant others think about them: The influence of perspective taking on self-referential processing.

People maintain a positive self-concept through positive self-appraisals (Self-Serving Bias Effect, SSBE) and a diminished memory for self-threatening information (Mnemic-Neglect Effect, MNE). Other people also influence a person's self-concept. This study investigated SSBE and MNE in 60 females by using a trait-judgment paradigm applying two perspectives (self- and third-person appraisals) and a recall task. Additionally, self-esteem was assessed as an associated factor. SSBE and MNE were found in both kinds of appraisal perspectives. Interestingly, participants saw themselves as even more positive in reflected appraisals. SSBE and self-esteem were associated only in self-appraisals, indicating a larger SSBE on self-appraisals with raising self-esteem. In conclusion, both what females think about themselves and how they assume that others think about them preserve their overall positive self-concept.